(1994, p. 1125) concluded that “Regardless of the manager’s intent (i.e., to deliberately insult/intimidate the subordinate, or merely to innocently retell an ‘amusing’ joke), such behavior is a high-risk activity.” We will discuss power differences in section “Power Differences and the Case of Asymmetry.”. For low-power individuals, humor expressions even had negative emotional consequences. Therefore, the joke-listener’s perception of this form of distance could influence how s/he perceives the intention of the joke-teller.
Here is a drill I learned from Adarian Barr.” Well first, you have to watch video. doi: 10.2307/1556375, Trope, Y., and Liberman, N. (2010). 18, 207–216. 96, 619–632. View all
This principle is perhaps reflected in the frequent practice of making jokes about people from a neighboring country. Liberman, N., Trope, Y., and Stephan, E. (2007). Psychol. Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: theoretical models and preliminary data. To the extent that humor is a socially engaging emotion, an additional prediction can therefore be that this tendency further increases the high-power joke-teller’s threshold for experiencing something as funny. The social and ethnic groups and cultures to which the joke-listener belongs or associates her-/himself with would obviously be important. It is therefore surprising that these elements have not yet been systematically integrated into the BVT. What Magee and Smith (2013) hypothesized about the relationship between asymmetric experiences of social distance and power could provide an important contribution here. 2nd edn. Acad. Hofstede, G. (1980). However, here power was conceptualized as a temporary psychological state. Chapter 2 lays out the book’s main argument on the importance of power asymmetry. According to the classic theory of Hofstede (1980), high versus low power distance is one of four dimensions along which national cultures differ. This should be a less critical situation. With increasing severity, more individuals will agree on the joke being bland or offensive, the expressed anger being improper, or the leadership behavior being clearly destructive. Let us first turn to the case where the joke-teller is in the high-power position, and the joke-listener is in a low-power position. High-power participants were less likely to rate jokes as inappropriate, offensive, and also less funny. Here, we argue that a joke-listener and a joke also may be socially distant or socially close, as perceived by the joke-listener or joke-teller. In preparing for this topic area candidates should study the way power is represented in spoken and written discourses, for example in official documents, media texts, advice leaflets etc. J. Appl. Evolution of spite through indirect reciprocity. Herein lies the systematic potential for mismatched maps. This study examines how perceptions of power use and prevailing relationship quality in dyadic relationships characterized by substantial power asymmetry affect behavioral and operational outcomes. Among the areas which we thus suggest may encompass benign violations, we find the sweet spots described more or less explicitly in relevant theoretical models. I reflected on May (1976) power dynamics while working with S which Akister (1996) categorised in four different ways namely; power against, power ov… Psychol. This goes for societies in general (Gelfand et al., 2011; Plester, 2016), organizations (Plester, 2009), as well as for other social entities. Cultures may thus dictate a shared impropriety threshold (for when a violation is no longer seen as benign). Bergmüller R, Johnstone RA, Russell AF, Bshary R. Behav Processes. They demonstrated how the perception and usage of humor in an organizational setting may be influenced both by the persons’ relative social positions and the culture at large. Magee and Smith (2013) also claimed that power is related to the tendency to experience socially engaging versus disengaging emotions. (2018) found when they induced experimental participants with states of high or low power. The natural home of information asymmetry within agency theory is the setting in . Humor 31:85. doi: 10.1515/humor-2017-0106, Krantz, J. Their theory is mostly concerned with dyadic relationships where power is related to interdependence. doi: 10.1111/joop.12041. Plester, B. The symmetry or asymmetry of a relationship is not always easily defined, as multiple factors can come into play. Psychol. (Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum). As a consequence, it takes more for the high-power joke-teller to regard something as a violation, and more for something to be perceived as benign. The concept of super-asymmetry is related to super-symmetry string theory . Culture and leadership across the world: The GLOBE book of in-depth studies of 25 societies. Power develops within a relationship you have with another person. Kaluza had 1919 already the idea, that a 4. spatial dimension would explain the particle much easier. However, to the extent that a humorous situation involves multiple persons, the sweet spot would also be likely to depend on social variables. The role of social context in the interpretation of sexist humor. Our third point concerns those cases in which the joke-teller and joke-listener have different cultural backgrounds. For instance, when investigating jokes in romantic relationships, in workplaces, on the sports field, and so on. Note that we limit our discussion to cases in which humor is used with the intention of amusing others, rather than for other communicative purposes (cf. Other models also attend to a form of sweet spot, although the correspondence to BVT mechanisms is less explicit. The fundamental question that any psychological theory of humor needs to explain is why something is perceived as funny and other things are perceived as not funny. 90, 578–596. Sci. His idea of 'power behind discourse' looks at power dynamics between the two speakers themselves, and how their current situation affects their power asymmetry, or difference. Again, our discussion concerns attempts to hit the sweet spot, and associated risks of over- or undershooting. They addressed how a joke-listener can feel temporally close or distant to an event, depending on whether it happened recently or long ago. High social distance is notably also associated with group-level outcomes (Antonakis and Atwater, 2002). Crossing the line(s): a dual threshold model of anger in organizations. For instance, imagine someone (with intact vision) who tells a joke about blind persons. Humor as a double-edged sword: four functions of humor in communication. I will be using May (1976) theory of power to analyse my work with S and also be making references to French and Raven (1974) theory of power in the process. Res. You could be asked to analyse either a spoken or written text. (2018). The BVT specifies how psychological distance plays a central role in determining whether a certain event, joke, or other stimulus is perceived as benign or malign. Jiang, T., Li, H., and Hou, Y. Moreover, high power is associated with reduced attention and responsiveness to the mental states, thoughts and feelings of other people. The joke-teller’s perception of this may be likely to influence what s/he chooses to joke about. Manag. 10:1380. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01380. Rev. The majority of these questions related to the social/societal context in which humor takes place. Note that this discussion will be limited to situations in which someone intentionally tells a joke to someone else, and where the intention is to be funny by hitting the sweet spot of both joke-teller and joke-listener. Even though all four forms of distance are mentioned in the BVT literature, the main focus seems to be on temporal and geographical distance (e.g., McGraw et al., 2012, 2014). Psychol. Power asymmetry entails distance asymmetry, and therefore different sweet spots. In reality, a social setting would normally involve several people who would have different roles and perspectives and could in principle disagree as to whether the joke was a violation, whether it was benign, and whether it was funny. On sin versus sickness: a theory of perceived responsibility and social motivation. With the behavioral step already taken, the low-power individual is left only with the opportunity to change the values in order to resolve the cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1962). 2016 Feb 5;371(1687):20150084. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0084. When looking at the asymmetric conflict theory and (Mack, 1975) article why big nation lose small wars, his analysis focused mostly on the French and their defeat in Algeria and the U.S defeat in Vietnam, Asymmetry of the power to win war was systematically and inversely related to the political vulnerability of each respective actor. (2016). considerable asymmetry of power; control of the flows is consolidated by the hydro-hegemon; and competition over water is stifled (Zeitoun, 2006a). Thus, a violation could more easily be perceived as malign. Manag. Knegtmans et al. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1118373109, Plester, B. This is in contrast to behavior which, if present, is either exclusively malign or benign. LK had the main responsibility for conceptualizing and writing those parts of the manuscript that address implications and applications of the framework in a broader context. However, it could be relevant to other types of relationships where interdependence is less present or central than in dyads. Gandhi (1940) emphasized just barely breaking the (oppressive) law, without hurting others, and while telling the truth. Each particle from one group is associated with a particle from the other, known as its super-partner, the … In line with this general focus on the social element of humor, Olin (2016) differentiated between the joke-teller and joke-listener. This evolutionary puzzle is usually explained by kin selection where close relatives perform altruistic and cooperative acts to help each other and by reciprocity theory (i.e. Here, it may also be meaningful to point to the possible influence of organizational culture (e.g., Geddes and Callister, 2007), which could influence the absolute level of how certain groups of individuals may perceive or use humor. doi: 10.1126/science.1197754, Glasø, L., Ekerholt, K., Barman, S., and Einarsen, S. (2006). Power Asymmetry and the Principal Agent Problem quantity Add to cart This video simulation was designed to give students insights into the challenges surrounding difficult conversations, both with people across the table, as well as with people on their own side. The existence of different perspectives is not explicitly acknowledged in BVT, which instead largely focuses on situations where there is agreement over whether something is funny or not. However, such behaviors may also take place in other contexts of power asymmetry, for example in families. Appl. Based on the assumption that power influences social distance, we argue that power asymmetry may explain certain disagreements over whether something is … Our emphasis on the role of potential power asymmetry may explain why a joke-teller and a joke-listener may perceive the sweet spot to be of different size and different location. (Academic press). Examples of the latter would include virtuous betrayal toward subordinates which Krantz (2006, p. 221), argues leaders sometimes have to do “in the service of higher purposes.” As this involves pushing subordinates beyond their comfort zone, it bears similarities to borderline tyrannical leadership (cf. A state in which differences in status exist between individuals and groups of individuals within an organizational hierarchy and these differences result in differential ability to take action or cause action to be taken. Spector and Fox, 2010) refers to a form of extra-role behavior, where an employee goes above and beyond the call of duty. Questions for a theory of humor. I construct an analytical framework drawn from bargaining theory to explain when power asymmetry may fail to prevail in China's infrastructure diplomacy, which is illustrated by its high-speed rail negotiations in Southeast Asia. Other related concepts are humor user, target person, and audience (Meyer, 2000). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. They conducted a series of experiments where participants were primed with power concepts, and claimed to find that such priming increased people’s tendency for abstract, high-level construals. *Correspondence: Leo Kant, leo.kant@uib.no; Elisabeth Norman, elisabeth.norman@uib.no, Front. Theory 10, 310–331. Using Hofstede's cultural dimensions to explain sexually harassing behaviours in an international context. This might imply a smaller (or no) overlap between the sweet spots of the two parties. If the high-power joke-teller is also less “empathically accurate” (cf. Third, we suggest that cultural differences might influence shared perspectives on what is benign vs. malign, as well as power balance. The BVT explains why some attempts may succeed, some may fall short, and others may overshoot the sweet spot. Welcome to the sequence of articles on the Gestalt Theory lessons in web and graphic design. It might also influence power differences and social distance in various ways. For a low-power individual to hit the sweet spot with a joke to a high-power individual, one needs to increase the severity or to somehow decrease the distance, e.g., getting more personal with the high-power individual. A parietal α power asymmetry, A P, was defined similarly using channels P3 and P4. Our subject today is another principle in this extremely useful theory to graphic and web designers, Symmetry. Perhaps they modify their emotions for organizational survival as they typically do, suppressing negative emotions and exaggerating positive emotions (Glasø et al., 2006), including laughing at the rich man’s joke. You focus on the forest when you're in charge of the trees: power priming and abstract information processing. If power is an additional determinant of construal level, power differences may be relevant in the search for a “sweet spot” within which both joke-teller and joke-listener can agree on a joke constituting a benign violation. Interestingly, Kim and Plester (2019) drew similar distinctions in an ethnographic study of the influence of roles and hierarchy on humor perception and expression in Korean work settings. When superimposing the different maps of the high-power party and the low-power party, it does not only reveal a fixed border zone, but a disputed no-man’s-land with split opinions, perhaps even a frontier for change. Passivity and silence are often required of many, as in the rise of the Nazi regime (Lewin, 1943) or with the #MeToo. An example is destructive leadership (Einarsen et al., 2007) pertaining to leaders—along with several alternate concepts such as abusive supervision (Tepper, 2000) or toxic leadership (Padilla et al., 2007), and counterproductive work behavior (Spector and Fox, 2010) pertaining to subordinates. For instance, Hemmasi et al. Positive & Negative Face - Levinson & Brown From the feminist perspective, this theory can be viewed in three ways: How men look at women, how women look at themselves and finally, how women look at other women. Consequences of abusive supervision. Cultural differences (between societies, organizations, or even families) may also influence the extent to which individuals are expected or allowed to express certain emotions. Psychol., 19 June 2019
Psychol. House and Javidan, 2004; Einarsen et al., 2007). Correlated pay-offs are key to cooperation. However, since the focus of this paper is on the social dimension, we will not discuss the influence of the other dimensions any further. Both practitioners involved in a power-sharing arrangement and scholars who study collaborative governance usually assume a power-sharing arrangement by default in collaborative arrangements. In the “sweet spot” lies the potential for positive change. Examples are, respectively, humiliating people, or displaying constructive leader behavior (Rayner and Cooper, 2003). An autobiography, or the story of my experiments with truth. Humor, comedy, and consumer behavior. Geddes and Callister, 2007) was higher, and that they may not have perceived the joke as a violation. In contract theory and economics, information asymmetry deals with the study of decisions in transactions where one party has more or better information than the other. We may consider an appropriate level of OCB as a case of benign violations. Higher social class predicts increased unethical behavior. Stress. A violation that is too harmless or too severe is not funny. Psychol. Front. As private firms have b Received: 29 March 2019; Accepted: 28 May 2019; Published: 19 June 2019. The social distance between a joke-listener and joke-teller may moderate whether a joke is perceived as benign or not. Psychol. 10, 123–123. Similarly, imagine your grandfather attempting a joke, using a term which is insulting among millennials. The implication of our current arguments is that culture could influence the circumstances under which a joke told between two individuals belonging to the same culture is seen as funny or malignant. Hemmasi et al. Proc Biol Sci. Downloadable Video Simulation from the Teaching Negotiation Resource Center. A frontal power asymmetry measure, A F, in the θ band was defined using channels F3 and F4 (see Appendix 1). Cultural differences in humor perception, usage, and implications. We will now place these factors in the broader context, by highlighting three ways in which culture may influence the sweet spot of humor. However, the BVT has certain limitations, which constitute the starting point for this paper. If the joke-teller and joke-listener do not have a close personal relationship, it is relevant whether the joker is familiar or unfamiliar, or belongs to an in-group or an out-group. The instrumentality of emotion in leader–subordinate relationships. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00414.x, Stephan, E., Liberman, N., and Trope, Y. In the BVT, the sweet spot of humor has to do with identifying something which is a violation of the expected, while simultaneously being benign. Q. doi: 10.1037/a0018963, Warren, C., Barsky, A., and McGraw, A. P. (2018). Sci. Typi… These power relationships give way to unequal encounters. The #MeToo campaign has shown that sexual harassment often occurs in cases where someone tried (or claimed to try) to be funny. Notably, the theory of psychological distance that the BVT largely draws on has specified that power is a predictor of social distance. Similarly, a joke can pertain to something geographically close or far away. (2007) exemplified as being determined by whether something happens to oneself or others, involves someone who is familiar or unfamiliar, or involves someone who belongs to an in-group or out-group. Even though this paper has focused on the intentional joke leading to unintentional crossings, inappropriate crossings may of course also be done intentionally (cf. However, discussions on OCB include reflections on the facts that (1) the expected behavior should not be left undone and (2) everyone cannot exclusively perform out of the ordinary OCB. The social setting in which the something is observed, heard, or experienced is not taken into consideration. doi: 10.1086/265642. Examples include a leader’s position compared to a subordinate’s, an emperor’s compared to a peasant’s, and a parent’s compared to a child’s. The weight of glory, and other addresses. In contrast, low power is characterized by a stronger tendency to feel similar when comparing oneself to others. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. We now turn to three components that in our view need to be included in the BVT to increase its explanatory value. In the following, we only provide selected examples illustrating either of these perspectives. A charge asymmetry or particle-antiparticle asymmetry is defined in a similar way. One example is to study sub-components of the model where naturally occurring power differences are relatively stable, as in hierarchical organizations such as hospital wards or families, or in organizations where hierarchies may change across time (Breevaart et al., 2014). This can for instance occur in sexual harassment, #MeToo, bullying, aggression, abusive supervision, destructive leadership, counterproductive work behavior, organizational citizenship behavior, parenting, and family relations. They also highlighted the relevance of social power. Social motivation, justice, and the moral emotions: An attributional approach. Furthermore, action taken by subordinates to deter non-reciprocation by dominants is likely to prove prohibitively costly to their fitness, making successful enforcement of reciprocal mechanisms unlikely. Power is a property of the social relationship rather than the quality of the individual (Hocker & Wilmot, 2014). Jiang et al. Leadersh. Gender-related asymmetry may for instance be found in matriarchies and patriarchies. 2003 Jan 22;270(1511):199-205. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2002.2225. Plester, 2016) aimed beyond the sweet spot, deliberately hurting the joke-listener, such as in power play, conflicts, ostracism, or bullying. 2020 Feb 12;7(2):191808. doi: 10.1098/rsos.191808. Too close for comfort, or too far to care? First, the stimulus must represent a violation which is contrary to expectations and threatens the person’s view of what the world “ought” to be. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00123, Kim, H. S., and Plester, B. This can be understood in relationship to section “The Relative Social Distance Between Joke-Teller, Joke, and Joke-listener.” The relative social distances involved in the triad of the joke-teller, the joke-listener, and the joke might be perceived differently by the joke-teller and the joke-listener. 1, 255–276. (2012) include joking about someone stubbing their toe yesterday or being hit by a car 5 years ago. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. The importance of knowing more about the social context of humor is also implicated in the current research topic. Humor 26, 277–293. Power Asymmetry - Fairclough In many instances of spoken discourse, there is a degree of power asymmetry between speakers. We would like to thank the two reviewers and the editor for very helpful comments and suggestions. The effects of time perspective and level of construal on social distance. Some of these solemn issues by definition involve power asymmetry, for instance leaders and subordinates operating in a formal hierarchical system, where anger, destructive leader behavior, and destructive subordinate behavior occur. Geddes, D., and Callister, R. R. (2007). A theory developed to answer both questions is the Benign Violation Theory (BVT) (McGraw and Warren, 2010; McGraw et al., 2012, 2014; Warren and McGraw, 2016). The latter may of course have cultural limitations/restrictions, or even involve cultural taboos—one is not always at liberty to inform the emperor that he is in fact naked. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.03.002, Festinger, L. (1962). The social distance theory of power. A. Chhokar, J. S., Brodbeck, F. C., and House, R. J. A central point in SDTP is that power asymmetry may lead to asymmetry in the perceived social distance between two parties of a dyad: whereas a low-power individual may feel relatively close to a high-power individual, the high-power individual may feel relatively distant to the same low-power individual. Another way to put it—the impropriety threshold (for when a violation is no longer perceived as benign) is higher for the high-position joke-teller (cf. Cognitive dissonance. Psychol. Meyer, 2000). Soc. This may be of value in humor research. Examples would include (but not be limited to) white lies, courtesy, and cursing. This is in contrast to any intentionally dark uses of humor (cf. altruism; asymmetric power; competition; cooperation; direct reciprocity; generalized reciprocity; indirect reciprocity; punishment; symmetric power. This goes both for the organizational context (Kim and Plester, 2019) and for the larger societal context (e.g., Jiang et al., 2019). This form of psychological distance has so far received less attention in the BVT than other forms of distance. Relat. 43, 178–190. It is also argued here that many apparently puzzling forms of cooperation observed in nature (e.g. The Male Gaze theory, in a nutshell, is where women in the media are viewed from the eyes of a heterosexual man, and that these women are represented as passive objects of male desire. Copyright © 2019 Kant and Norman. Accordingly, more is known about the sweet spot of humor in relation to these two distance dimensions than about hypothetical and social distance. Trope and Liberman, 2010). (2006). Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. J. Hum. However, quasi-experimental investigations could also be used. As mentioned earlier, the important role of culture in influencing power asymmetry has to date been overlooked in studies that address the possible role of social power in BVT (Knegtmans et al., 2018). It follows that a joke-teller in a certain power position may have one sweet spot as defined by the BVT, whereas a joke-listener in a different power position may have a different sweet spot as defined by the BVT. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates). Note that all four types of distance identified here (sections “Social Distance Between Joke-Listener and Joke” to “The Relative Social Distance Between Joke-Teller, Joke, and Joke-Listener”) could also be applied to other dimensions of psychological distance. One limitation to empirical studies of the BVT is that they have not addressed all forms of psychological distance to an equal extent. Nature. Furthermore, we emphasize the important role of culture, which is likely to have a direct influence on the shared norms for what constitutes a violation and what is considered benign (e.g., Gray and Ford, 2013). Humor used with ambitions to “develop organizational culture” has been empirically reported (Plester, 2016, p. 88). J. Appl. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). If one is to understand humor at a level beyond the individual, this distinction is essential. Plester, 2016). 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On whether or not the joke asymmetry entails distance asymmetry, and from social.... Multiple social perspectives and power differences, that is the relative distance temporarily unavailable for the past seasons! ( Olin, L. F., and others may overshoot the sweet violation. Question in the SDTP ( Magee and Smith, 2013 ) also addressed possible implications for the jokes might! Low-Power position and the joke is perceived as benign, which may be influenced by social power the... Be conceptualized slightly differently depending on whether it happened recently or long ago ). To other social situations with border zones than an individual level state of power asymmetry may explain disagreements.